The Importance of Critical Thinking: The battle Against Motivated Reasoning

As I’ve grown older, one principle has stood out above all else: the importance of reason, critical thinking, or simply, "thinking well." In particular, I want to discuss what I believe is the greatest obstacle to thinking well: motivated reasoning.

The Foundation of Reason

Reason is my bedrock, my starting point, my non-negotiable. It is, if you like, the one thing I’m certain of. This doesn’t mean I blindly trust reason, but rather that I believe in it as the foundation for good conversations, sound thinking, and progress. If someone argues that reason is not a reliable foundation for life or truth, they must present reasons to support their claim. In doing so, they contradict themselves and prove the very thing they seek to refute.

The Rarity of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is rare for several reasons. First, it requires time, effort, and cognitive ability. Some might argue it also requires training in philosophy or logic.

While all humans think, few engage in critical thinking. In this way, critical thinking is like exercise: it requires effort, improves with practice, and vast numbers of people avoid it entirely. Many go through life simply following their instincts or gut feelings. To be fair, this often works well on a personal level.

This brings me to the second reason critical thinking is rare: evolution hasn’t optimized us for it. Evolution has equipped us with the ability to think critically, but it prioritizes survival and reproduction over truth-seeking. Traits like attracting a mate, finding food, and belonging to a tribe take precedence over logical analysis. Critical thinking exists only to the extent that it helps us survive and reproduce. We might say that truth matters to humans, but only insofar as it serves these evolutionary priorities.

Despite this, critical thinking remains a powerful tool—our species' superpower. It has lifted us from the forest floor and, more recently, out of grinding poverty, placing millions in homes with electricity, air conditioning, and modern comforts. However, critical thinking is not our default state; it serves us rather than ruling us. And this is where things get interesting.

The Elephant and the Rider

Prominent social psychologist Jonathan Haidt uses the metaphor of an elephant and a rider to describe how humans think. The elephant represents our emotions and intuitions, while the rider represents our reasoning faculties. The elephant is large, powerful, and largely subconscious (linked to our limbic and reptilian brains), while the rider is smaller, newer (about 150,000 years old), and conscious (linked to our prefrontal cortex).

Several key insights arise from this metaphor:

1. The Rider is Not in Full Control While the rider holds the reins, if the elephant decides to move in a different direction, the rider has limited power to stop it. This explains why emotions often override logic, even when we recognize the rational choice.

2. The Elephant Must Be Calm for the Rider to Function If the elephant is stressed, the rider becomes powerless. This is why people with OCD often say, “I know my compulsions are irrational, but I can’t help it.” Their amygdala (the elephant) has taken over, sidelining their rational mind (the rider).

3. The Rider Often Serves the Elephant The rider frequently rationalizes the elephant's actions. If the elephant decides to go east, the rider may tell himself a story about why east was the preferred direction all along. This is what we call motivated reasoning or rationalization.

How Motivated Reasoning Works

1. The Elephant (Emotion & Instinct) Leads First

   • We form gut reactions or emotional preferences before engaging in rational thought.

   • Example: Someone strongly identifies with a political party and instinctively rejects opposing arguments without considering their merits.

2. The Rider (Rational Mind) Justifies the Elephant’s Path

   • Instead of questioning the elephant’s instinctive reaction, the rider looks for reasons to defend it.

   • Example: A person who enjoys eating meat might downplay evidence of its environmental impact to avoid cognitive dissonance.

3. Confirmation Bias Strengthens the Cycle

   • The rider selectively focuses on information that supports the elephant’s position.

   • Example: Someone skeptical of vaccines may only seek out articles confirming their fears while ignoring scientific studies.

Haidt captures this process well:

“When we want to believe something, we ask ourselves, ‘Can I believe it?’ Then we search for supporting evidence. But when we don’t want to believe something, we ask ourselves, ‘Must I believe it?’ and search for contrary evidence. If we find a single reason to doubt the claim, we dismiss it.”

This explains why people hold onto beliefs even in the face of strong contradictory evidence. The standard of proof we require depends on whether we want to believe something.

Motivated Reasoning vs. The Scientific Method

Motivated Reasoning	Scientific Method
Starts with a desired conclusion	Starts with a question
Asks, “Can I believe this?” for favorable ideas and stops searching once supportive evidence is found.	Seeks falsifiable evidence, actively trying to disprove ideas.
Asks, “Must I believe this?” for unfavorable ideas and looks for reasons to dismiss them.	Relies on peer review and replication to ensure objectivity.

To counteract bias, science employs:

1. Falsifiability – Hypotheses must be testable and disprovable.

2. Double-Blind Studies – Preventing researcher bias.

3. Peer Review – Scrutinizing research to catch errors.

4. Replication – Ensuring findings are repeatable.

How to Get Better at Critical Thinking

1. Be Aware of Your Biases

   • Recognize motivated reasoning and confirmation bias.

   • Practice intellectual humility—be open to changing your mind when faced with strong evidence.

   • A useful rule of thumb: The side you least want to be true is often the correct one.

2. Ask Better Questions

   • Instead of "Can I believe this?" ask, "What is the strongest counterargument?"

   • Instead of "Is this true?" ask, "What evidence would prove this wrong?"

3. Improve Your Information Diet

   • Read diverse sources, especially ones that challenge your views.

   • Check the quality of evidence (Is it peer-reviewed? Who funded the study?).

4. Slow Down Your Thinking

   • Use System 2 Thinking (deliberate, slow reasoning) rather than gut reactions (System 1).

   • Take time before making judgments, especially on emotional topics.

5. Engage in Thoughtful Discussions

   • Debate with those who disagree with you in good faith.

   • Avoid echo chambers.

6. Keep Learning

   • Read books on logic and cognitive biases (e.g., Thinking, Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman).

   • Analyze news, advertisements, and social media claims critically.

Good critical thinking is a habit, not just a skill. The more you challenge your own assumptions and think deliberately, the better you’ll become at separating truth from bias. While our elephants may always have the first move, we can train our riders to steer better.